Program Goal IX: Reflection and Professional Development

The Education Department's conceptual model recognizes the prominent role reflection plays in effective classroom decision-making. Like Cooper (1999), we believe that "reflection is the decision-making system’s way of correcting itself" (p. 8) in that it adds to one’s body of knowledge for use in future decisions. Though reflection may take place before or during teaching, it is our view that the most important reflection occurs after teaching and away from the hustle and bustle of classroom interactions. It involves self-evaluation through a critical analysis of teaching decisions and their outcomes to determine how effectively each of the three teaching functions (planning, implementing, and evaluating) were handled (Cooper, 1999).

Dewey was among the first to promote reflection as a means of professional development in teaching. He believed that critical reflection is the most important quality a teacher may have and that it has much more impact on the quality of schools and instruction than the teaching techniques one uses (Dewey 1916). Dewey (1933) added that when teachers speculate, reason, and contemplate using open-mindedness, wholeheartedness, and responsibility, they will act with foresight and planning rather than basing their actions on tradition, authority, or impulse.

More recently, Donald Schon (1987) has suggested that the ability to reflect on one's actions is a defining characteristic of professional practice.  Schon has also noted that reflection can take place throughout the teaching process and is a crucial aspect of the process by which beginners in a discipline improve their practice to make it more consistent with that of successful, experienced practitioners.

The idea that reflection is the foundation of what good teaching is and what good teachers do is echoed in current literature as well. Hole and McEntee (1999) stated that reflecting on the ordinary experiences of a teaching day is the life-force of teaching practice, and Zeichner and Liston (1996) wrote that reflection is essential for helping understand the complex nature of classrooms. Clark (1995) suggested that learning to be a good teacher results from conscious reflection on events, training, experiences, readings, and other contextual contributions. Osterman (1990) stated that reflection is an essential part of the learning process because it results in making sense of and extracting meaning from experiences.

Definition of Reflection: Though reflection and reflective practice have been defined in a variety of ways, Valverde (1982) viewed reflection as examining one’s situation, behavior, practices, effectiveness, and accomplishments by asking: What am I doing and why? The self-evaluation that follows involves active, persistent, and careful consideration, speculation, and contemplation of the practitioner's beliefs and knowledge and leads to professional development, growth, and greater understanding of self and the profession. Valverde went on to say that to be truly considered a reflection, this self-examination must be constructive, deliberate, and undertaken periodically.

Similarly, Kottkamp (1990) defined reflection as "A cycle of paying deliberate attention to one's own actions in relation to intentions . . . for the purpose of expanding one's opinions and making decisions about improved ways of acting in the future, or in the midst of the action itself (p. 182).

Kottamp's definition acknowledges Schon's (1983) perspective that reflection can take place in different time frames. When reflection takes place before or after an act, it is called "reflection-on-action." This sort of reflection in teaching occurs before a lesson when a teacher plans and considers possible lesson outcomes and after teaching when one considers the lesson's actual outcomes. "Reflection-in-action" occurs during teaching such as when a teacher modifies and adjusts teaching based on unexpected student behaviors.

Stages of Reflection: Van Manen (1977) described reflection as consisting of three stages: Stage one is confined to analyzing the effects of strategies used. The second stage involves reflection about the assumptions underlying a specific classroom practice as well as its consequences. Stage three entails questioning the moral and ethical dimensions of decisions related to the classroom situation. It involves reflection on the assumptions underlying a decision or act and on the broader ethical, moral, political, and historical implications behind the assumptions on which the decisions are based. It also involves technical, educational, and ethical consequences of those decisions. For reflection to have the maximum effect on professional growth and development, educators must engage in all three stages.

Elements of Reflection: Stones (1994) suggested that three important elements are necessary for reflection to occur: practical experience, a meaningful knowledge base, and interaction with other human beings. Ginsburg (1988) added strong problem solving skills as another critical component of productive and meaningful reflection. Elements of reflection listed by Stones, Ginsburg, and others are described below:

Practical experience, Stones contends, is the basis for learning, but learning from these experiences will not take place without reflection. Clark (1995) added that educators become more aware of the contradictions between what they do and what they hope to do by reflecting on successes and failures in the classroom. All experiences educators have, inside and outside the classroom, provide building blocks for continued development within the profession. This does not happen automatically, however. By themselves, experiences do not provide guidance for and development of future practices. Only by reflecting on, considering, and wondering about these experiences do they become a major source of strength in the quest for becoming an accomplished teacher.

Meaningful knowledge about pedagogy and theories of learning as well as social, historical, and political foundations of education are also considered by Stones to be crucial for productive and meaningful reflection. Knowledge of content, as well as information about students, availability of instructional resources, and educational research are other aspects needed in the knowledge base of a successful reflective teacher. Lasley (1989) added two other crucial components to Stone's vision of an effective knowledge base: philosophical awareness and understanding of what constitutes good practice. He cautioned that without these components, reflection may lead to repetition of mistakes and preoccupation with techniques rather than to discovery of the values and assumptions that underlie practice.

In addition to the above two components, Stones suggested that interaction with others is also of critical importance for fostering professional growth through reflection. Teachers must continuously make difficult decisions about instruction, but when actively sharing experiences and using professional colleagues as support for reflection and problem-solving as well as seeking and giving feedback, these decisions are more likely to result in informed actions. Teaching is not a solitary act. It is more like a continuous interaction between teachers, students, parents, colleagues, and the community where problems are discussed and possible solutions suggested. This interaction gives the participants new perspectives on teaching and supports their development. Not only does reflection on interactions with others lead to stronger and more sound decision-making, but it may also lead to stronger communication skills. Brookfield (1995) contended that through reflection a teacher becomes better able to justify and explain educational actions to self and others. Reflection aids educators in speaking about their practice in a confident and informed manner.

Ginsburg (1988) wrote that in order to reflect in a manner that promotes professional growth and development, educators must use problem solving skills to modify and enhance their understanding of professional practice. Problem solving skills are necessary when trying to make sense of difficult situations, identify areas in need of improvement, clarify goals for improvement, and develop an action plan to accomplish them. Smylie and Conyers (1991) added that teachers use and strengthen their problem solving skills as they focus less on the transfer of knowledge and more on analytical and reflective learning.

Finally, according to Osterman and Kottkamp (2004), reflective practice "seeks to identify, assess, and change the underlying beliefs and assumptions, the theories-in-use, which directly influence actions." (p. 16). To accomplish these goals, reflective practice must incorporate key elements from constructivism, experiential learning, and situated cognition. These include the understanding that learning must be an active process; it must acknowledge prior experience and knowledge, the fact that knowledge is constructed through experience, and that learning is most effective when it involves collaboration.

Reflection and Moral Stewardship: In addition to the aforementioned effects of reflection on professional growth and development, Goodlad (1990) suggested that reflection also aids the educator in becoming a moral steward. By reflecting on daily practice, the educator is more likely to understand and practice the standards of professional conduct spelled out in the Code of Ethics for the Education Profession.

In summary, reflection fosters professional growth and development, critical thinking, self-assessment, and self-directed learning. It promotes the development of new knowledge, leads to broader understanding, and creates greater self-awareness (Osterman & Kottkamp, 2004). It facilitates sorting through and selecting from many ideas, helps confront and challenge one’s current conceptions of teaching and learning, and assists in identifying how these affect classroom decision making. Therefore, reflection is an invaluable tool in facilitating life-long learning and professional growth.

References:

Brookfield, S. (1995). Becoming a critically reflective teacher. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Inc.

Dewey, J. (1933). How we think. A restatement of the relations of reflective thinking to the educative process. Boston: D.C. Heath.

Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and education. New York: Free Press.

Clark, C. M. (1995). Thoughtful teaching. New York: Teachers College.

Cooper, James M. (1999). "The teacher as a decision-maker." In J.M. Cooper (editor). Classroom teaching skills ( 6^th Ed.). James M. Cooper (editor) pp. 1-19). Boston: Houghton-Mifflin.

Ginsburg, M. B.(1988). Contradictions in teacher education and society: A critical analysis. New York: Falmer.

Goodlad, J. I. (1990). The occupation of teaching in schools. In J. I. Goodlad, R. Soder & K. A.Sirotnik ( Eds.) The moral dimensions of teaching (pp 3-34) San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Hole, S. & McEntee, G. (1999). Reflection is at the heart of practice. Educational Leadership. 56 (8) May, p 34 - 37.

Kottamp, R. (1990). Means of facilitating reflection. Education and Urban Society, 22.2 pp. 182-203.

Lasley, T. (1990). Editorial. Journal of Teacher Education 40, (2), March - April 1998.

Osterman, K. F. (1990). Reflective practice: A new agenda for education. Education and Urban Society, 22 (2); February 1990, p 133-152.

Osterman, K.F. & Kottamp, R.B. (2004). Reflective practice for educators. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Schon, D. (1983). Educating the reflective practitioner. New York: Basic Books.

Schon, D.(1987). Educating the reflective practitioner. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Seifert, K. L. (1999). Reflective thinking and professional development. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Smylie, M.A. & Conyers, J. G. (1991). Changing conceptions of teaching influence the future of staff development. Journal of Staff Development, 12 (1), 12 -16.

Stones E. (1994) Reform in teacher education: The power and the pedagogy. Journal of Teacher Education, 45, 310-318.

Van Manen, J. (1977). Linking ways of knowing with ways of being practical. Curriculum Inquiry, 6, 205-208.

Valverde, L (1982). The self-evolving supervisor. In T. Sergiovanni (Ed) Supervision of teaching (p 81 - 89). Alexandria: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Zeichner, M. and Liston, P. (1996). Reflective teaching: An introduction. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum and Associates.