Program Goal I: Subject Matter

According to Zumwalt (1989), Passe (1999) and others, subject-matter, or curricular knowledge, has often been given a role of lesser importance in the knowledge base for beginning teachers than that assigned to knowledge of instructional behaviors and outcomes. Perhaps a major reason for the traditionally low status of subject knowledge is the fact that teachers have often taught a prescribed curriculum over which they had little control. This changed to some extent in the 1990s as the trend toward decentralization of educational decision-making gave teachers expanded roles in curricular planning (Passe, 1999). Currently, with the “standards” movement of the early 2000s, content is again more centrally controlled and prescribed. However, even in situations where the overall curriculum is based on specific sets of standards, it is still often the teachers' responsibility to determine what content should be taught to meet those standards (Scherer, 2001, p. 17). Therefore, it remains vitally important for teachers to have in-depth knowledge of the disciplines they teach, including not only factual knowledge, but also organizing principles, central concepts, and the "ways in which new knowledge is brought into the field" (Grossman, Wilson, and Shulman, 1989, p. 29).

Our summary of subject-matter (curricular) knowledge begins by describing approaches that seek to structure (or organize) knowledge. Summaries of essential subject-matter knowledge based on the Minnesota Graduation Standards and selected national standards are then presented followed by information regarding approaches to interdisciplinary instruction. Though in this section of the knowledge base we will view curriculum as separate from instruction, such a differentiation is artificial. As Passe (1999) noted, what is taught (content or subject matter) certainly has an important influence on decisions regarding teaching (instruction). However, since instructional methods are considered elsewhere within the knowledge base, that information will not be duplicated here.

Structure of Knowledge: In order to effectively communicate subject matter, teachers must understand how knowledge is structured or organized in the disciplines they are teaching. A simple but useful approach to structuring knowledge described by Kindsvatter, Wilen, and Ishler (1997) places knowledge into a pyramid consisting of facts (verifiable, specific information about people, events, or objects) at the lowest level, followed by concepts (ideas or abstractions based on grouping or categorizing facts) at the next level, and generalizations (broad statements or organizing principles that integrate multiple concepts) at the top. A similar, though more elaborate, approach is described by Gagne (1965). This approach divides knowledge into five categories based on the level of intellectual skills necessary for learning that knowledge (Lefrancois, 1999): simple types of learning (signal learning and responses learned through conditioning), discriminations (differentiations between similar stimuli), concepts (categories or ideas that reflect the commonalities of related objects or events), rules (combining concepts into predictable patterns), and higher order rules (combining rules for use in problem solving).

A third approach to the structure of knowledge, though developed by Benjamin Bloom (1956) nearly 50 years ago, is still widely used in instructional planning. Commonly referred to as Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, this system divides the cognitive domain into the following six levels based on desired learner outcomes: knowledge (factual information), comprehension (understanding or attributing meaning to factual information), application (using that which is known and comprehended), analysis (breaking a task or information into its component parts), synthesis (combining separate elements to form a whole and achieve understanding), and evaluation (using criteria to judge the quality of objects, events, or ideas). Taxonomies for the affective and psychophysical domains, though available, are not as widely accepted and, therefore, will not be included in this brief summary.

State and National Subject Standards: As noted in the opening paragraph of this document, teachers do have choices regarding the content they teach. However, these choices may be limited by local, state, and national curricular standards. Minnesota and selected national standards are described below.

Minnesota Graduation Rule: The Minnesota Graduation Rule consists of two components: the Basic Standards and the Minnesota Academic Standards (Laws of Minnesota 2003, Chapter 129): 

The Basic Standards identify the skills in reading, mathematics, and writing that are essential for employment, further education, and functioning in society. These skills are assessed by means of competency tests. Students take the math and reading tests during eighth grade and the writing test during tenth grade. They must pass these tests in order to graduate from high school. Those who do not pass a test on their first attempt may retake it annually until they achieve a passing score (Aune, 2000). To pass the reading test, students must be able to read a passage and identify the main idea, recognize supporting information, identify the meanings of words and phrases, recognize the author’s point of view, draw logical conclusions, and differentiate between fact and opinion. The math test covers material taught prior to sixth grade and requires students to solve problems using whole numbers, fractions, percents, rates, ratios, and proportions; use concepts of number sense, place value, and number relationships; use estimation in context; apply measurement concepts; read, interpret, and use one and two-dimensional graphic forms such as tables, charts, maps, and graphs to analyze data, identify patterns, and make predictions; use elementary concepts of probability and statistics; and apply geometric and spatial relationships. The writing test requires students to write an essay that contains the following characteristics: clarity of the central idea; coherence of focus; organization; detailed support or elaboration of main ideas; and effective language usage in the areas of spelling, grammar, and punctuation (Minnesota Department of Children, Families, and Learning, 2000).

The Minnesota Academic Standards define a new core of five academic content area standards: language arts, mathematics, science, social studies and the arts. Standards for Mathematics, Language Arts, and Arts were adopted in a 2003 law. The 2004 Legislature adopted science and social studies standards. Each of the academic standards will be supplemented by grade-level benchmarks. These benchmarks will specify the academic knowledge and skills that students must achieve to complete a state standard.

In addition to the core academic standards areas, there are several elective subject areas. School districts must create local elective standards and must offer elective courses covering health and physical education, vocational and technical education, and world languages. The law requires students to complete a specified number of course credits covering both core and elective subject areas in order to receive a high school diploma (Minnesota Legislative Reference Library, 2003).

National Standards: Though by no means specifying a mandatory national curriculum, voluntary national standards developed by subject-specific professional organizations have had considerable impact on curricula (Kindsvetter, Wilen, and Ishler, 1997). The paragraphs below briefly summarize the national standards for the arts, foreign language, language arts, mathematics, physical education, science, and the social studies. Each set of standards suggests a body of knowledge and its organizational patterns. The State of Minnesota has developed curriculum frameworks in the arts, mathematics, language arts, social studies and science. These frameworks incorporate the knowledge and organizational patterns of the equivalent national standards. They are, therefore, not separately described in the summaries that follow.

The Arts: The National Standards for Arts Education (Consortium of Arts Education Organizations, 1994) provide integrated standards for dance, music, theater, and the visual arts. The standards emphasize the importance of the arts to life and learning; incorporate cultural diversity; and stress a comprehensive, hands-on, interdisciplinary orientation. Though specific standards are provided for each discipline at the primary, middle, and high school levels, the standards all emphasize the following knowledge and skills: basic communication in the four arts disciplines, proficient communication in at least one art form, the ability to develop and present basic analyses of works of art, acquaintance with exemplary works of art from a variety of cultures and historical periods, and the ability to relate various types of arts knowledge and skills within and across the arts disciplines. The overall goal of the standards is to develop capabilities that allow students to "arrive at their own knowledge, beliefs, and values for making personal artistic decisions" (Consortium of National Arts Education Associations, p. 19, 1994).

Foreign (World) Languages: The Standards for Foreign Language Learning (The National Standards for Foreign Language Education Project, 1996) were a joint project of the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages, The American Association of Teachers of French, The American Association of Teachers of German, and The American Association of Teachers of Spanish and Portuguese. While maintaining the importance of learning vocabulary and grammar, the Standards emphasize the necessity of learning to "communicate in meaningful and appropriate ways with users of other languages" (The National Standards for Foreign Language Education Project, 1996, P. 3). Specific standards and sub-standards are provided in five areas: communication in languages other than English, understanding other cultures, connecting with other academic disciplines, comparisons to other languages and cultures, and participation in multilingual communities.

Language Arts: The Standards for the English Language Arts (NCTE/IRA, 1996) were a joint project of the National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) and the International Reading Association (IRA). They are guided by the vision "that all students must have the opportunities and resources to develop the language skills they need to pursue life’s goals and to participate fully as informed productive members of society. These standards assume that literacy growth begins before children enter school as they experience and experiment with literacy activities--reading and writing, and associating spoken words with their graphic representations" (Crafton, 1996, p viii). Therefore, the standards encourage teachers to make use of the emerging literacy skills of young children. The standards describe appropriate content in reading; literature; language, including its structure and conventions; and writing. They emphasize respect for diversity and the use of technological and information resources. A list of the 12 standards follows: 1. Students read a wide range of print and non-print texts to build an understanding of texts, of themselves, and of the cultures of the United States and the world; to acquire new information; to respond to the needs and  demands of society and the workplace; and for personal fulfillment. Among these texts are fiction and nonfiction, classic and contemporary works; 2. Students read a wide range of literature from many periods in many genres to build an understanding of the many dimensions (e.g., philosophical, ethical, aesthetic) of human experience;  3. Students apply a wide range of strategies to comprehend, interpret, evaluate, and appreciate texts. They draw on their prior experience, their interactions with other readers and writers, their knowledge of word meaning and of other texts, their word identification strategies, and their understanding of textual features (e.g., sound-letter correspondence, sentence structure, context, graphics); 4. Students adjust their use of spoken, written, and visual language (e.g., conventions, style, vocabulary) to communicate effectively with a variety of audiences and for different purposes; 5. Students employ a wide range of strategies as they write and use different writing process elements appropriately to communicate with different audiences for a variety of purposes; 6. Students apply knowledge of language structure, language conventions (e.g., spelling and punctuation), media techniques, figurative language, and genre to create, critique, and discuss print and nonprint texts; 7. Students conduct research on issues and interests by generating ideas and questions, and by posing problems. They gather, evaluate, and synthesize data from a variety of sources (e.g., print and nonprint texts, artifacts, people) to communicate their discoveries in ways that suit their purpose and audiences; 8. Students use a variety of technological and information resources (e.g., libraries, databases, computer networks, video) to gather and synthesize information and to create and communicate knowledge; 9. Students develop an understanding of and respect for diversity in language use, patterns, and dialects across cultures, ethnic groups, geographic regions, and social roles; 10. Students whose first language is not English make use of their first language to develop competency in the English language arts and to develop understanding of content across the curriculum; 11. Students participate as knowledgeable, reflective, creative, and critical members of a variety of literacy communities; 12. Students use spoken, written, and visual language to accomplish their own purposes (e.g., for learning, enjoyment, persuasion, and the exchange of information). (National Council of Teachers of English/International Reading Association, 1996)

Mathematics: Building on the Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics developed in 1989, the NCTM Standards 2000 Project has resulted in the recent release of the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics (NCTM, 2000). The new standards "describe a connected body of knowledge of mathematical understandings and competencies - a comprehensive foundation for all students, rather than a menu from which to make curricular choices" (NCTM, 2000, p. 29). The ten standards can be divided into two categories: Content Standards (Number and Operations, Algebra, Geometry, Measurement, and Data Analysis) and Process Standards (Problem Solving, Reasoning and Proof, Communication, Connections, and Representation). Principles that guided the development of the new standards include equity for all learners, curriculum coherence, teaching that recognizes what students know and need to learn, student learning based on building understanding from experience and prior knowledge, the use of effective assessment that supports learning, and the importance of technology in teaching and learning mathematics (NCTM, 2000).

Physical Education: The National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE) has revised their standards for K-12 physical education by emphasizing “the importance of physical education in contributing to good health in light of the epidemics of obesity and diabetes and other chronic diseases among children” (author, 2004, page ?). The six National Standards for Physical Education specify that a physically educated student "1. Demonstrates competency in motor skills and movement patterns needed to perform a variety of physical activities; 2. Demonstrates understanding of movement concepts, principles, strategies, and tactics as they apply to the learning and performance of physical activities; 3. Participates regularly in physical activity; 4. Achieves and maintains a health-enhancing level of physical fitness; 5. Exhibits responsible personal and social behavior that respects self and others in physical activity settings; and 6 Values physical activity for health, enjoyment, challenge, self-expressions and/or social interaction” (author, 2004, page ?).

Science: The National Science Education Standards were developed by the National Academy of Sciences (1996). They are divided into three levels (K-4, 5-8, and 9-12) and eight categories: Unifying Concepts and Processes, Science as Inquiry, Physical Science, Life Science, Earth and Space Science, Science and Technology, Science in Social and Personal Perspectives, and History and Nature of Science (National Academy of Sciences, 1996). As Passe (1999) noted, these standards attempt to change the emphasis in science education from knowing scientific facts to understanding scientific concepts. Other emphases include integrating science content; learning fewer, but fundamental, science concepts; teaching through inquiry; and analyzing science questions.

Social Studies: The social studies are a broad curriculum area made up of many disciplines including anthropology, archaeology, economics, geography, history, political science, psychology, and sociology. In 1994, the National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) identified the following ten themes in the Curriculum Standards for Social Studies: I. Culture; II. Time, Continuity, and Change; III. People, Places, and Environments; IV. Individual Development and Identity; V. Individuals, Groups, and Institutions; VI. Power, Authority, and Governance; VII. Production, Distribution, and Consumption; VIII. Science, Technology, and Society; IX. Global Connections and Independence; and X. Civic Ideals and Practice (NCSS, 1994). These standards are organized to incorporate learning experiences from many disciplines because, by there very nature, the social studies require multidisciplinary education. They are, therefore, intended to be integrative and "cut across (the) social studies as well as across other subject areas" (Passe, 1999, p. 82).

The Integrated Curriculum: As noted above, the national standards in some academic areas (particularly the arts and social studies) are purposefully interdisciplinary. This current emphasis on interdisciplinary instruction is consistent with our departmental preference for integrated learning and reflects the belief of subject-area leaders "that no subject is sufficient by itself; (rather) each is a part of the whole" (Passe, 1999, p. 222). Often called thematic teaching or the integrated curriculum, Richard Kellough (1997) defines this approach as "both a way of teaching and a way of planning and organizing the instructional program so the discrete disciplines of subject matter are related to one an other in a design that (1) matches the developmental needs of the learners, and (2) helps to connect their learning in ways that are meaningful to their current and past experiences" (p. 251). Passe (1999) listed benefits of the integrated curriculum including providing an opportunity to expand instruction for "de-emphasized" subjects such as art and physical education, diminishing the overemphasis on textbooks, and increasing opportunities for the integration of problem solving and the application of subjects to everyday life. Drawbacks of thematic teaching listed by Passe include a lack of appropriate teacher preparation for using this approach, incompatible classroom organization, and the possibility of resistance from those who favor a more traditional curriculum.

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As we conclude this section on subject-matter knowledge, the findings of Grossman, Wilson, and Schulman (1989) seem quite pertinent. Recounting their explorations into the practice of novice secondary teachers, these writers found that beginning teachers experience the subject matter they share with their students in at least three ways. The initial foundation young teachers construct for a developing understanding of a body of knowledge might be brought to light by facts and concepts that form the "content" of introductory study. Further work at an intermediate level could suggest explanatory frameworks used to organize their growing collection of facts and concepts into a "substantive" family of related principles or generalizations. Those prospective teachers who persist in their study of a discipline through completion of advanced coursework may acquire "syntactic" knowledge of a discipline’s epistemology revealing how its content and explanatory frameworks are discovered and validated.

In addition to these three levels of knowledge about what they would teach, Grossman and her colleagues added that prospective teachers’ "beliefs" about subject matter can influence how they share that knowledge with their students (p. 31). They urged teacher educators to work with their disciplinary colleagues to "provide opportunities for prospective teachers to identify and examine the beliefs they have about the content they teach" (p. 32). Those who prepare teachers might thereby counter unintended perspectives on a body of knowledge that could otherwise color the experiences these new teachers would offer their students. Such beliefs appear more salient in the absence of opportunities to explore the "substantive" and "syntactic" knowledge forming a discipline. Those who teach outside of their college major are, thus, at greater risk for drawing upon inaccurate representations of a field of study they share with their students.

References:

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Aune, B. (2000) Minnesota graduation standards. St. Paul: Minnesota Department of Children, Families, and Learning.

The Consortium of National Arts Education Associations (1994). The national standards for arts education. Reston, VA: Music Education National Conference.

Bloom, B. et al. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: Handook I: Cognitive domain. New York: Longman.

Crafton, L. (1996). Standards in practice, grades k-2. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English.

Gagne, (1965). R. The conditions of learning. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, Inc.

Grossman, P., Wilson, S., and Shulman, L. (1989). Teachers of substance: Subject matter knowledge for teaching. In Maynard C. Reynolds (Ed.), Knowledge base for the beginning teacher.. Oxford: Pergamon Press.

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Meinbach, L. Rothlein, R. and Fredericks, A. (1995). The complete guide to thematic units: creating the integrated curriculum. Norwood, MA: Chistopher-Gordon Publishers, Inc.

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Minnesota Department of Education. (2004). “Minnesota Academic Standards in History and Social Studies.” St. Paul: Minnesota Department of Education. Available at http://education.state.mn.us/html/intro_standards_social.htm.

Minnesota Department of Education. (2003). “Minnesota Academic Standards: Mathematics K-12.” St. Paul: Minnesota Department of Education. Available at http://education.state.mn.us/html/intro_standards_math.htm.

Minnesota Department of Children, Families & Learning. (2000). "Minnesota graduation standards." St. Paul: Minnesota Department of Children, families, and Learning. Available at http://cfl.state.mn.us/GRAD/gradhom.htm

Minnesota Legislative Resource Library.  Resources on Minnesota Issues Academic Standards), September 2003. (7/8/2004) Available at http://www.leg.state.mn.us/lrl/issues/grad2.asp

National Academy of Sciences. (1996). National science education standards. Washington, DC: National Academy Press..

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National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. (2000). Principles and standards for school mathematics. Reston, VA: NCTM.

National Standards in Foreign Language Education Project. (1996). Standards in foreign langauge learning: Preparing for the 21^st century. New York: The National Standards in Foreign Language Education Project.

Passe, J. (1999. The elementary school curriculum (2^nd Ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.

Scherer, Marge. (2001). “How and Why Standards Can Improve Student Achievement: A Conversation with Robert Marzano.” Educational Leadership. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Young, J. (1997). "National standards for physical education." ( ED406361). ERIC Digest. Washington, DC: ERIC Clearinghouse on Teaching and Teacher Education. Available at http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed406361.html.

Zumwalt, K. (1989). "Beginning professional teachers: The need for a curricular vision." In Maynard C. Reynolds (Ed.), Knowledge base for the beginning teacher. (pp. 101-116). Oxford: Pergamon Press.