Program Goal V: Learning Environment

The term learning environment refers to a broad concept comprised of diverse and varied components. When effectively combined, these components can ensure that students have an appropriate and intellectually stimulating place to learn and thrive. The paragraphs that follow describe the knowledge, skills, and ideas our department believes are needed to make classroom decisions that result in effective learning environments for all students.  Specific topics include schools as communities of learning, classroom motivation, and classroom management, as well as small schools and reduced class size.

The Education Department concurs with John Goodlad’s (2004) belief that all teacher educators must approach teaching knowing and understanding the larger purpose of American education, that of providing “for the young an introduction to the freedoms and responsibilities in a democracy” (308). Therefore, as teachers go about creating effective learning environments, it is important for them to keep in mind that the underlying principle, the overarching purpose of American schools, must be to link education and democracy. 

Schools as Communities of Learning: Based on the Benedictine values of concern for community and respect for all persons, a guiding principle of our departmental philosophy is the belief that students learn best in a safe, humane, and welcoming classroom community. Such a community provides an environment where students are participants in the classroom decision-making process and where they can develop as whole persons (not just cognitively, but emotionally, socially, aesthetically, physically, and spiritually as well). This most effectively occurs in settings where all students are welcomed by caring, competent teachers who recognize and value student diversity, where teachers and students are learning from and listening to one another, where parents and care givers are actively involved in their children’s learning, and where all stakeholders respect the opinions and rights of others. Drawing from the work of Abraham Maslow (1970), we believe such schools nurture self-esteem and contribute to a sense of belongingness that allows students to focus their efforts on the higher level needs necessary for personal and academic success. Schools such as those described above don’t just happen. Rather, they are the result of extensive planning and a great deal of hard work. Characteristics of such schools are described below.

Linda Darling-Hammond (1997), in a report on exemplary elementary and secondary schools, found that these schools had similar organizational patterns and commitments to excellence. The schools she studied share many characteristics with our departmental vision of excellence in that they (1) help young people learn to use their minds well; (2) hold high and universal academic standards; (3) stress personalization; (4) have commitments to goals of student-as-worker and student–as-citizen; (5) use performance-based assessments; (6) foster a respectful tone, values, and decency; (7) implement a structure for shared decision-making; 8) involve families; (9) and demonstrate a commitment to diversity.

Similar characteristics and commitments are found in Ernest Boyer’s (1995) vision of what he calls the "basic school." According to Boyer, effective schools focus on making connections, both to people and to a curriculum. They are places where teachers, administrators, counselors, and support staff are committed to the same essential beliefs about how people learn and where they consciously create learning environments that contribute to the self-esteem of all persons. The richness of the learning environment and the emphasis on connecting to all members of the group result in a community of learning. Boyer’s basic school is an ideal more than an institution where all members of the school come together.

The development of a learning community such as that described by Boyer (1995) requires a school facility that is both functional and aesthetically appealing. At the Manhattan New School in New York, where 35 languages are spoken, educators create attractive and functional environments with the advice and help of their students. However, aesthetics are not all that make this school successful. Manhattan New School teachers work hard at creating a supportive community by establishing rituals with their students; surveying students to discover their interests, strengths, and needs; eliciting student opinions about room arrangements and displays of students’ work; and building solid connections between home and school (Hindley, 1996). Making connections with students’ families is a particularly important ingredient in New Manhattan’s success. As noted by Linda Darling-Hammond, when teachers and families create a healthy partnership to support students’ growth as learners, they build a bridge between the expectations of school and the expectations of home.

The Benedictine values of concern for community and respect for all persons are seen in Ernest Boyer’s concept of the basic school and in the work of Elliot Eisner. Eisner (2002) noted that a healthy learning community must serve all those who work in the schools, including teachers. He advocates for teachers to observe other teachers in their classrooms and to enter into good conversations about learning and curriculum during the school day—not tacked on to the end of busy days. Like Eisner, the Education Department acknowledges that our learning environment extends to the entire community, the public within the schools and the public outside.  Opportunities to share one’s passion and vision for teaching the young will enable educators to meet the needs of our diverse population.

Student Motivation: Motivation deals with the "why" of behavior (e.g. why a student would, or would not, make an effort to complete a classroom task). It can be defined as "The influence of factors such as needs and preferences on the continuation of behavior" (Rothstein, p. 370, 1990). The creation of a nurturing school community is a crucial factor in increasing student motivation. However, there are many other important factors as well. The next few paragraphs will summarize the most important of these factors. It will also provide an overview of various perspectives for describing and explaining motivation.

The Impact of Early Experiences: Most young children come to school motivated to learn. It is important to create learning environments that sustain and nurture this strong desire to learn. Numerous research studies substantiate that early, pleasurable experiences of exploratory play lead learners to academic understanding of a particular topic and increase their curiosity to delve more deeply into that topic (Gardner, 1999). Psychologists and socialists understand that when people want to learn, they will have the drive to persevere when obstacles hinder progress. Equally as important as an environment in which free exploration is encouraged is the positive influence of one or more mentors guiding and rousing learners along to greater challenges. Additionally, Gardner (1999) suggests that students are motivated to learn when they participate in an activity for which they possess a particular talent. It is, therefore, the responsibility of teachers and administrators to provide a wide range of activities for children to explore so that they can discover their talents.

Motivation and Emotions: Recently, there has been a renewed interest in how motivation to learn is linked to the emotions. The affective domain in learning has long been ignored, possibly because of the difficulty in measuring a person’s feelings. It is now apparent, however, that deep learning is connected to emotions, and to promote high motivation, teaching content must be presented in a context that elicits an emotional response (Gardner, 1999; Moore, 1992).

Arousal Theory: As noted by Lefrancois (1999), arousal is a physiological and psychological concept related to motivation. "As a physiological concept, arousal refers to changes in function such as heart rate, respiration rate, electrical activity in the cortex, and electrical conductivity of the skin. As a psychological concept, arousal refers to degree of alertness, awareness, vigilance, or wakefulness. Arousal varies from very low (coma or sleep) to very high (panic or anxiety)" (Lefrancois, p. 410, 1999). Since arousal levels that are too high or too low result in poor motivation and ineffective learning, it is important for teachers to help maintain moderate levels of arousal in their students. Students’ arousal levels can be increased by providing novelty, meaningfulness, or an increased activity level. Arousal levels can be too high because of excessive anxiety. When this occurs, arousal may be decreased by altering testing procedures, increasing students’ perceptions of their competency, or helping them to develop better learning and test-taking strategies (Lefrancois, 1999).

Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: Much debate exists over the relative merits of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. Students are extrinsically motivated when they engage in a behavior because they expect to receive an external reward such as praise or a good grade. Intrinsic motivation, on the other hand, involves a desire to engage in an activity for its own sake, perhaps because of the sense of self-satisfaction that follows its completion. Alfie Kohn (1996) describes three conditions that educators can develop to foster intrinsic motivation: collaboration with others, appropriate content of the learning task, and the opportunity for choices of content or method. These three conditions are similar to and complement guidelines by Gardner (1999) and other researchers (Darling-Hammond 1997 and Cleary & Peacock, 1998) who suggest that students are intrinsically motivated when they know they are cared for by their teachers, afforded opportunities to make choices, and engaged in the process of meeting challenging but attainable goals.

The Behavioral Perspective on Motivation: Behaviorists typically explain motivation on the basis of operant conditioning. In other words, people are motivated to obtain reinforcement and avoid punishment (Rothstein, 1990). Though extrinsic reinforcers such as praise and grades are unavoidable and can be important motivators for some students, educators are cautioned about adding extrinsic incentives such as excessive praise to activities toward which students are already highly motivated. In these situations, excessive praise can actually hinder learning because students may become overly dependent on the giver of the praise (Perrone, 2000). Therefore, for it to be effective, praise should be used in moderation. Other guidelines for use of praise include making it specific to the project and praising the effort the student has exhibited (Cleary and Peacock,1998).

Cognitive Views of Motivation: Unlike the behavioral perspective, cognitive views of motivation emphasize intrinsic motives (Rothstein, 1990). Specific factors related to this perspective include self-efficacy, attribution, and achievement motivation. Self-efficacy refers to self-perceptions or judgments of one’s abilities to be successful. Since students are more likely to be motivated to attempt tasks on which they believe success to be likely, it is important for teachers to provide tasks at the correct level of difficulty and help students to develop appropriate expectations for success (Lefrancois, 1999). Attribution, or locus of control, refers to beliefs regarding the cause of success or failure. Those with an internal locus of control attribute success or failure to factors within their control (such as effort) while those with an external locus of control attribute success or failure to external factors such as luck (Rothstein, 1999). Programs designed to move students toward more internal attributions typically emphasize providing praise based on students’ efforts and by teaching effective learning strategies (Lefrancois, 1999). Achievement motivation refers to one’s need for success. Though we often assume that all students have a strong need to achieve, this is not always true. Research indicates that achievement motivation can be increased by inviting students "to take risks, make predictions, modify predictions, establish realistic goals, and assume personal responsibility for the results of their behaviors" (Lefrancois, 1999, p. 437).

Humanistic Perspectives on Motivation: Humanistic approaches to motivation emphasize such factors as autonomy, competence, and self-actualization (Lefrancois, 1999). The most prominent humanistic theory of motivation is that proposed by Abraham Maslow (1970). This theory holds that individuals must meet lower level, deficiency needs (physiological, safety, belongingness, and esteem). before being motivated to meet higher level needs such as knowledge, aesthetics, and self-actualization. Based on this theory, it is important for teachers to help students meet their deficiency needs by providing a safe, welcoming classroom environment that contributes to a sense of belongingness and enhances students’ self-esteem.

Classroom Management: The issue of classroom behavior has long been a source of concern and frustration for families, students, and educators. In fact, since 1969, the annual Gallop Poll of the Public’s Attitudes toward the Public Schools reports that school discipline is the public’s primary educational concern (Jones and Jones, 1998). Over the years, various approaches to classroom management have evolved in response to the public’s concern and teachers’ frustration in maintaining safe environments that are favorable to student learning. Vernon Jones and Louise Jones (1998) described three general approaches representative of distinct classroom management philosophies. These approaches and specific management plans consistent with them are summarized below:

Counseling approaches, which often apply humanistic ideas, attempt to analyze and deal with the causes of behavior problems. Approaches such as Linda Albert’s Cooperative Discipline (1989), which matches interventions to four goals of student misbehavior (attention, power, revenge, and failure avoidance) and William Glasser’s Reality Therapy (1966), which uses individual conferences with students to help them accept responsibility for their behavior, are examples of this type of approach.

Behavioral methods, such as Lee Canter’s Assertive Discipline (1992), apply the principles of operant conditioning to enforce rules and modify students’ behavior. Though still used in some situations, this approach is not as popular as it once was.

Teacher-effectiveness research, though not necessarily matched with any particular educational theory, provides a new direction, emphasizing not what teachers do in response to student misconduct, but rather how they prevent or contribute to students’ misbehavior. This approach focuses attention on three sets of teacher behaviors that influence students’ behavior and learning: (1) teachers’ skills in organizing and managing classroom activities, (2) teachers’ skills in presenting instructional material, and (3) teacher-student relationships. Jacob Kounin’s (1970) recommendations for preventing behavior problems by demonstrating "with-it-ness," overlapping, momentum, and focus fall into this category.

Chip Wood (2002) suggested in his Responsive Classroom Model that teachers and administrators should establish a healthy, vigorous learning environment where there is time to establish and maintain solid relationships between teachers and students, among students, and among the faculty.  A healthy environment is one with time for in-depth study and reflection for students and for faculty.  Wood urges teachers to begin the school year slowly, to take time to set clear social, academic expectations.  The Responsive Classroom Model offers teachers and administrators opportunities to change the school climate so that all may flourish.

There is little evidence to support the use of one approach over another. What is supported by the research is that effective teachers accept responsibility for student learning. Instead of blaming students for misconduct, good teachers reflect upon their own beliefs and expectations for learners and on their classroom practices in order to understand why some students are not learning or are being disruptive. As Jones and Jones (1998) noted, effective teachers understand that principles of effective classroom management are comprehensive and cannot be reduced to a single method of controlling students’ behavior. They also understand that a just and well-disciplined classroom results from several factors including the quality of the instructional strategies; respectful, supportive teacher-student relationships; and effective communication between administrators, teachers, students, and parents.

Small schools and reduced class size: Currently, teacher educators, parents, and legislators are discussing the merits of small schools in creating the kind of learning environment that is safe, nurturing, and healthy intellectually.  With funding from the Bill & Melinda Gates foundation, educators are moving toward smaller schools (Copland, Boatright, 2004; Myatt, 2004).  Such schools provide teachers with opportunity to know every student and for the students to know all of the teachers (Copland, Boatright, 2004).  This type of an environment allows the personal connections that are vital for students to thrive and become knowledgeable, well-rounded individuals. Personal connections are further strengthened as parents and community leaders form a bond to the schools, the students, and the teachers.

Related to the small school movement is attention to the benefits associated with smaller class size, especially in the primary grades.  Jeremy Finn (2002) summarized a collection of research studies that overwhelmingly supported smaller class size.  The following are among the promising results when class size is below 20 pupils:

• student engagement is learning is increased
• academic achievement is heightened
• teachers experience fewer classroom management problems
• teacher morale is improved.

By applying the research on small schools and small class size, healthy places can be established for students to learn and grow.

References:

Albert, Linda. A teacher's guide to cooperative discipline. Circle Pines, MN: AGS, 1989.

Boyer, E. L. (1995). The basic school: A community for learning. Princeton, New Jersey: The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching.

Canter, L & Canter, M. (1976). Assertive discipline. A publication of Lee Canter & Associates.

Cleary, L. M. and Peacock, T. D. (1998). Collected wisdom: American Indian   education. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. 

Copland, M. A.; Boatright, E. E.  (2004).  Leading small:  Eight lessons for leaders intransforming large comprehensive high schools.  Phi Delta Kappan.  85 (10),  762- 770.

Darling-Hammond, L. (1997). The right to learn: a blueprint for creating schools that work. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Eisner, E. W.  (2002).  The kind of schools we need.  Phi Delta Kappan.  83 (8), 576-583.

Gardner, H. (1999). The Disciplined Mind: What all students should understand. New York: Simon and Schuster.

Glasser, W. Schools without failure. New York: Harper Row, 1966.

Goodlad, J. I.  (2004).  Romances with schools:  A life of education.  New York:  McGraw-Hill.

Hindley, J. (1996). In the company of children. York, Maine: Stenhouse Publishers.

Jones, V. and Jones, L. (1998). Comprehensive classroom management: Creating communities of support and solving problems (5^th ed.) Allyn and Bacon, Needham Heights, MA

Kohn, A. (1993). Punishment by rewards. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Kounin, J. (1970). Discipline and classroom management. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.

Lefrancois, G.  (1999).  Psychology applied to teaching (10^th Ed. ).  Belmont, CA:  Wadsworth.

Maslow, A. (1970). Motivation and personality (2^nd ed.). New York: Harper and Row. 

Moore, L. M. (1992). The social contexts of literacy interactions in aliterature-based kindergarten classroom. (Doctoral dissertation, University Nebraska, Lincoln, 1992).

Myatt, L.  (2004).  Fulfilling the promise of small high schools.   Phi Delta Kappan. 85(10), 770-772.

Perrone, V. (2000). Lessons for the new teacher. Boston: McGraw.

Rothstein, P.  (1990).  Education psychology.  New York:  McGraw-Hill.

Wood, C.  (2002).  Changing the pace of school:  Slowing down the day to improve thequality of learning.  Phi Delta Kappan.  83(7), 545-550.