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Program Goal II: Student Learning

In order to make effective classroom decisions, teachers must have a firm understanding of the learning and developmental processes. This understanding must include knowledge of learning theories and their classroom applications, developmental stages, and theories of development. The paragraphs that follow describe those aspects of this set of knowledge that we believe to be essential for beginning teachers.

Learning Theories and Their Classroom Applications:Learning theories are often divided into two main categories: behaviorism and cognitivism. This summary will follow that traditional organizational format. However, humanistic perspectives on teaching and learning, which are central to our department’s emphasis on holistic learning, will also be described.

Behavioral Models: According to Omrod (1999), behavioral theories focus on tangible, observable behaviors or responses. In fact, behaviorists define learning as "the relatively permanent change in behavior brought about as a result of experience or practice" (Huitt, 1998, p.1). For the purposes of this summary, three categories of behavioral learning theories will be described: operant conditioning, classical conditioning, and social (observational) learning.

Operant Conditioning: Having much in common with Edward Thorndike’s Connectionism, particularly its "Law of Effect," modern operant conditioning theory is based on B. F. Skinner’s principle that "a response followed by a reinforcer is strengthened and is therefore more likely to occur again" (Omrod, 1999, p. 36). Thus, in the operant model, reinforcement (i.e. following a response with a positive or reinforcing consequence) is essential for learning, and behavioral change is based on the consequences that follow a behavior. Additional specific components of the operant model that are important for classroom teachers include shaping, chaining, primary and secondary reinforcers, schedules of reinforcement, extinction, negative reinforcement, and punishment (particularly its negative effects). The operant model has greatly influenced K-12 education and has resulted in a variety of teaching models and techniques (Huitt, 1998). These include the use of behavioral objectives, contingency contracts, applied behavior analysis, mastery learning, programmed instruction, and some types of computer-based instruction (Omrod, 1999). The Madeline Hunter (1980) model, Instructional Theory into Practice (ITIP), which involves the use of an anticipatory set to focus student attention, behavioral objectives to specify outcomes, modeling, checking for understanding, guided practice, independent practice, and closure (Kellough and Roberts, 1991), also draws heavily upon the operant conditioning paradigm.

Classical Conditioning: Based on the work of such pioneers in learning theory as Ivan Pavlov and John B. Watson, the classical conditioning model explains learning on the basis of associating or connecting stimuli through a process "in which a neutral stimulus becomes conditioned to elicit a response through repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus" (Schunk, 2000). Though not a particularly useful theory for instructional design, classical conditioning is frequently used to explain the development of certain emotional responses, especially fears and anxiety. Therefore, an important implication of this paradigm for teachers is that students should experience academic learning in environments that elicit pleasant rather than unpleasant emotions (Omrod, 1999).

Social Learning Theory: Sometimes called social cognitive theory, Albert Bandura’s social learning theory (Bandura, 1971) evolved from behaviorism (Bigge, 1982), but it now includes many ideas also held by cognitivists. This theory focuses on learning through observation and modeling (Omrod, 1999) and emphasizes the social context of learning. Unlike the basic operant conditioning model, social learning theorists emphasize the acquisition of beliefs and attitudes as well as behaviors. Additionally, the theory incorporates the concept of self-regulation, which can be defined as the ability to regulate one’s own behavior through applying internalized standards (Omrod, 1999). Implications for classroom teachers based on social learning theory include understanding the effectiveness of modeling (or demonstrating) new skills students are to learn and helping students develop self-regulatory behaviors "by teaching such techniques as self-instructions, self-monitoring, self-reinforcement, and self-imposed stimulus control" (Omrod, 1999, p. 144).

Cognitive Models: The current cognitive view of learning has its antecedents in Gestalt theory (which emphasized learning through insight) and the work of Jean Piaget (Omrod, 1999). As Lefrancois (1999) has noted, unlike behaviorism, cognitivism emphasizes mental events rather than overt, observable behaviors. Therefore, its focus is on the formation of concepts (or cognitive structure) and the acquisition, processing, organization, and storing of information. Three cognitive approaches to learning and their related classroom applications are summarized below: information processing theory, reception learning/expository teaching, and constructivism/discovery learning.

Information Processing: Making use of computer metaphors, information processing theories are concerned with such mental processes as "attention, perception, encoding, storage, and retrieval of knowledge" (Schunk, 2000, p. 167). According to Lefrancois (1999), the most widely used information processing model is basically a memory model and divides human memory into three levels: sensory, short-term, and long-term memory. Sensory memory involves the very short, unconscious availability of sensory data. Attending to or focusing on information from sensory memory transfers it to short-term memory, where it can be stored for up to 20 seconds (Lefrancois, 1999). The capacity of short-term memory can be improved by chunking or combining pieces of related material (Huitt, 2000). Moving information from short-term to long-term memory requires encoding, which involves rehearsal, elaboration, and organization. Increasing meaningfulness and distributing practice or rehearsal over several sessions can facilitate the transfer of information to long-term memory. Recommendations based on information processing theory for improving student learning include the importance of gaining students’ attention at the beginning of the lesson, bringing to mind relevant prior knowledge, presenting information in an organized manner, increasing meaningfulness, emphasizing important aspects of the information to be learned, minimizing interfering information, helping students chunk or group related pieces of information, providing opportunities for students to elaborate on new information through active learning, helping students to use mnemonic techniques, and providing opportunities for distributed practice/rehearsal (Huitt, 2000; Scruggs & Mastropieri, 1992).

Discovery Learning/Constructivism: Often associated with the work of Jerome Bruner (1966) and Jean Piaget (1960), discovery learning refers to the process of obtaining knowledge through one’s own efforts. In the classroom, discovery learning often occurs though structured or directed activities that require students to manipulate, investigate, and explore materials that may lead them to discover important principles or relationships (Schunk, 2000). Therefore, students are not presented with concepts and ideas in their final form, but rather are required to formulate them for themselves. Though structured discovery learning has long been a part of the science curriculum, the latest trend in discovery-based teaching, constructivism, has resulted in renewed and multidisciplinary interest in discovery-based learning. Constructivism holds that meaningful learning occurs when students construct and give their own meaning to knowledge based on their prior experiences and background knowledge (Fosnot, 1996). It also recognizes that challenging and helping students to correct their misconceptions is essential to effective learning (Schunk, 2000). Conditions that foster such knowledge construction include the development of "a cognitive apprenticeship" between teacher and student, the use of realistic learning tasks, and exposure to multiple perspectives (Biehler and Snowman, 1997).

Reception Learning is often associated with the ideas of David Ausubel (1963). This form of learning involves receiving and processing structured information that has been presented by the teacher. As described by Lefrancois (1999), the associated technique of expository teaching emphasizes that for the most effective learning, teacher presentations should be organized from general to specific (subsumption) and include the use of advance organizers (introductory information designed to help students prepare for learning and remembering new information), expository organizers (descriptions of key concepts), and comparative organizers (an emphasis on similarities and differences between new and previously-learned material).

Humanistic Models: Based on the work of psychologists and educators such as Maslow (1970), Rogers (1951), and Combs (1982), humanistic approaches to learning emphasize the importance of the affective as well as the cognitive domain. Thus, humanists believe that education should be holistic and enhance the total development of the person, socially and emotionally as well as cognitively (Rothstein, 1990). Humanists, therefore, often incorporate teaching and learning strategies that integrate feelings, values, and social skills along with knowledge (Schunk, 2000). Humanists also believe that students learn best in warm, trusting classroom environments where they are given choices and allowed to express their creativity. Specific instructional approaches consistent with humanistic theory include discovery learning/constructivism (see description under cognitivism), cooperative learning, discussion-based learning, confluent education, and thematic teaching. These techniques are thoroughly described within Goal IV, Instruction.

Brain-based Learning: Within the past 20 years, much research has been done on the developmental processes of the brain. Research has shown that the specific brain functions are not fixed at birth as previously thought (Genesee, 2000). Although more research needs to be done in the area of brain-based learning, classroom teachers will find aspects of the current research helpful when considering instructional strategies. Brain-based learning “focuses on the brain as the organ of thinking and learning and takes the approach that the more teachers know about how the brain learns, the more instructional options become available. Increasing the options that teachers have during the dynamic process of instruction also increases the likelihood that successful learning will occur” (Sousa, 2001, p. 5). Though caution is advised in completely accepting the ideas of brain-based learning, it definitely offers a constructivist, active model which encourages student involvement in learning. The twelve implications for teaching listed by the Southwest Educational Development Laboratory (2000) are typical of those offered by proponents of brain-based learning. Many of these principles are consistent with ideas from other theories of learning:

  1. The brain is a simultaneous processing system; therefore, learning is enhanced by a rich, stimulating environment and the use of a variety of teaching strategies.
  2. Learning engages the entire physiology, suggesting that factors such as stress, exercise, and nutrition affect learning.
  3. The search for meaning is innate. Lessons, such as those using discovery-based strategies that stimulate this tendency, are particularly effective.
  4. The brain perceives and generates patterns; therefore, lessons presented in context, such as through thematic teaching, help students identify patterns and connect new content with previous experiences.
  5. Emotions and learning are connected. Students learn and form patterns best in classrooms with a favorable emotional climate.
  6. The brain processes parts and wholes simultaneously. Presenting bits and pieces of information outside of their context is ineffective.
  7. Learning involves focused and peripheral attention. Therefore, the entire classroom environment affects student learning.
  8. Because learning involves both conscious and unconscious processes. Encouraging active, intentional processing through reflection and metacognition enhance learning.
  9. There are at least two types of memory: rote and spatial. An overemphasis on rote learning may actually interfere with the development of understanding.
  10. The best learning occurs through natural spatial memory. Multi-sensory techniques and those that simulate real-world experiences are most effective.
  11. Learning is most effective in a challenging, but low threat environment.
  12. All brains are unique, and their structure is affected by learning. Using multiple approaches and teaching through multiple modalities will appeal to students' individual interests and learning preferences.

Multiple Intelligence Theory: Howard Gardner, whose work became known in the mid-1970s, looked at “mind-learning” according to the theory called “multiple intelligences.” Gardner believed that individuals learn in a variety of ways. He stated that “we are all so different largely because we all have different combinations of intelligences. If we recognize this, I think we will have at least a better chance of dealing appropriately with the many problems that we face in the world” (Armstrong, 1994, p. 1). Gardner believed that individuals learn best using one or more of several intelligences including spatial, musical, mathematical, linguistic, kinesthetic, interpersonal, and  intrapersonal (Armstrong, 1994, pp. 1-3). Recently, he has come to believe that we may also learn existentially, in other words, that we have the ability to pose and ponder questions about “life, death, and ultimate realities” (Gardner, 2000, p. 72). His theories on multiple intelligences offer one more way teachers might approach planning and teaching.

Though all of the above descriptions of learning have merit in explaining various types of learning, our department believes that the most effective school learning is typically constructivist and holistic in nature. Therefore, while our curriculum includes information on many approaches to learning, our preference for the cognitive and humanistic perspectives are, no doubt, apparent to our students.

Human Development: Development can be defined as "changes over time in the structure, thought, or behavior of a person due to both biological and environmental influences" (Craig and Kermis, 1995, p.11). In order to make effective classroom decisions, teachers need to have a thorough understanding of these changes, both as explained by developmental theories and as evidenced by the characteristics of students at different stages of development.

Developmental Theories: Developmental theories serve the important functions of organizing and explaining information about developmental changes (Paplilia and Olds, 1998). Since no one theory adequately explains all facets of development, teachers must have knowledge of multiple developmental theories. Five such theories are described below:

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory: Psychoanalytic (or psychosexual) theory deals primarily with personality and postulates that human "behavior is motivated by inner, unconscious forces, memories, and conflicts" (Feldman, 1998, p. 26) that may stem from early life experiences. According to this theory, there are three basic structures of the personality: the id (which consists of the irrational libidinal drives that motivate the person to seek pleasure and sexual gratification), the ego (the rational part of the mind), and the superego (essentially the conscience which counterbalances the impulses of the id). Development occurs through a sequence of five psychosexual stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital) which specify a body (or erogenous) zone that becomes the center of pleasure or gratification (Rice, 1997). Defense mechanisms such as denial, repression, rationalization, and displacement, which serve the important purpose of temporarily distorting reality to relieve anxiety or reduce conflict, are also important components of Psychoanalytic theory. Though primarily of historical interest, an understanding of Freudian theory may give classroom teachers insight into the importance of unconscious feelings and drives that may motivate some student behavior.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory: Derived to some extent from Psychoanalytic Theory, Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory places more emphasis on social and environmental factors as the primary determinants of personality and describes eight psychosocial crises, or turning points, which may result in either positive or negative characteristics. Successful resolution of early crises facilitates the positive resolution of later crises while a negative outcome of an early crisis makes it more difficult to positively resolve later ones (Erikson, 1963). The most important psychosocial crises for K-12 teachers are Industry vs. Inferiority (which corresponds to the elementary school years and plays an important role in the development of self-concept) and Identity vs. Role Confusion (which corresponds to adolescence and can result in either a strong sense of personal identity or confusion about one’s role in life).

Learning Theory as an Explanation of Development: Proponents of learning theory attempt to describe and explain developmental changes on the basis of operant and classical conditioning as well as social learning theory (Rice, 1997). These models as well as their classroom applications are described above within the section on theories of learning.

Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory: Jean Piaget’s theory (Piaget, 1960) describes four stages of cognitive development (sensorimotor, preoperations, concrete operations, and formal operations) and stresses that children think in qualitatively different ways during each of these stages (Philips, 1969). Therefore, it is important for teachers to understand the strengths and limitations of children’s thinking and reasoning during each stage and plan instructional activities that are developmentally appropriate.

Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy: More of a motivational than a developmental theory, Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy (Maslow, 1970) describes five levels of human needs: physiological, safety, belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization. Lower level (or deficiency needs) must be satisfied before energy can be focused on self-actualization, which involves the development of one’s full human potential (Craig and Kermis, 1995). Therefore, it is important for teachers to develop a classroom community in which students feel safe, accepted, and successful.

Developmental Stages: Since human development follows reasonably predictable patterns, an understanding of developmental stages helps teachers know what to expect of students at different ages. This knowledge is essential for planning age-appropriate instruction and recognizing those students whose development is delayed or disordered (Rothstein, 1990). For the purposes of this document, only developmental characteristics of preschool/kindergarten, primary, intermediate, junior high school, and high school students will be described. Unless otherwise referenced, all information below was drawn from Rothstein (1990) and Faw and Belkin (1989).

Preschool and Kindergarten-Age Students (3 to 6): Physical development of preschool and kindergarten-age children is relatively rapid. In general, their large-muscle coordination is more advanced than their fine-motor development, and handedness may not be established until age six. Children of this age tend to manifest high levels of physical activity and need periodic rest periods. They often express emotions openly, both physically and verbally, and often show jealousy, particularly in regard to teacher attention. At this age level, play is the most frequent form of social interaction, and typically takes the form of associative play (unorganized play with other children) or cooperative play (organized play involving rules and assigned roles). Preschool and kindergarten-age children enjoy being dramatic, and often imitate behavior and roles drawn from television. Their language skills are developing rapidly, and though they are still making grammatical and articulation errors, their vocabulary at age five consists of over 2000 words. Intellectually, these children are typically still in Piaget’s preoperational stage, thus their thinking is often illogical and tends to be dominated by such characteristics as centration (the inability to attend to multiple aspects of a situation) animism (attributing animate qualities to inanimate objects), egocentrism (seeing and understanding situations and events only from their own perspective), and transduction (linking specific situations and events regardless of whether there is a causal relationship).

Primary-Grade Students (Age 6 to 9): Children within this age range share several characteristics and needs with preschool and kindergarten children in that their large motor skills continue to be more advanced than their fine-motor coordination. They still demonstrate a high level of physical activity and, thus, continue to need rest periods and a variety of learning activities that emphasize active learning. Socially, they tend to have best friends as well as selective enemies. Their play is primarily cooperative, though they still have difficulty resolving rules disputes. They tend to be eager to learn but need praise for their efforts as they may be easily offended by criticism or lack of attention. Their language skills continue to develop rapidly, and the average six-year-old has mastered nearly all the basic rules of grammar and has a vocabulary of more than 2500 words. Girls have typically mastered all speech sounds by the age of seven and boys by the age of eight. Intellectually, primary-grade children generally remain eager to learn and are often in a transition from preoperational to concrete operational thought (the characteristics of concrete operational thinking are described below).

Intermediate-Grade Students (ages 9-12): The most important aspects of physical development during this stage are the growth spurt and the onset of puberty. The growth spurt (a short, but rapid period of physical growth that occurs immediately before the onset of puberty) typically occurs at about age 11 for girls and 13 for boys. Thus, girls are often taller and heavier than boys during this stage which may result in embarrassment. Puberty (physical changes that mark the onset of sexual maturity), which occurs at about age 12 for girls and 14 in boys, and the biological changes it brings about may result in an increase in sexual concerns and curiosity. Socially, the peer group and peer conformity become increasingly important as social cliques begin to form. Intellectually, children of this age have generally moved into Piaget’s stage of concrete operations, and therefore, their thinking is likely to demonstrate sociocentrism (the ability to understand that others may have a different point of view) conservation (understanding that objects remain the same even though their appearance may have changed), reversibility (the ability to return to the beginning of an intellectual operation), classification (the grouping and categorization of similar objects), and limited logical thinking (the ability to draw logical inferences, but only about concrete objects and situations). All of these intellectual skills are essential for effective academic learning.

Junior High School Students (ages 12-14): As is the case during the intermediate grades, physical development during junior high school is marked by the onset of puberty and its associated physical changes. These changes include the development of breasts, widening of the hips, and the onset of menstruation in females. For males, these changes include deepening of the voice, replacement of fat with muscle, and the appearance of facial hair. In addition to the gender-based maturational differences described above, there are also non-gender-based individual differences in the onset of the growth spurt and puberty. Early and late maturation have been the subject of much research with mixed results. Though some studies have found advantages such as improved self-confidence for early maturers, other studies have not found early maturation to be an advantage. Therefore, the impact of early and late maturation is difficult to determine. Social, emotional, and intellectual characteristics of adolescence are described below.

High School Students (ages 14-18): The high school years are an important transitional period in which students move from adolescence to young adulthood. An important part of this transition is the achievement of a personal identity that results in a clear sense of self. The adolescent’s peer group often plays an important part in identity development by providing emotional support and opportunities to experiment with various roles and behaviors. According to Craig and Kermis (1995), friendships are especially important during this period, and adolescents typically choose friends with similar interests and values. Intellectually, adolescence marks the transition from concrete operational to formal operational thought. Though not all adolescents make this transition during the high school years, those who do become capable of thinking abstractly, which allows them to hypothesize, systematically explore all logical solutions to a problem, reason by metaphor and analogy, understand proportionality, and think realistically about the future. As Craig and Kermis (1995) noted, one interesting result of adolescent intellectual development is a phenomenon known as adolescent egocentrism. This is characterized by the belief that the adolescent is continually being watched by others (imaginary audience) as well as a feeling of being special and invulnerable (personal fable). Though the adolescent years have traditionally been described in terms of emotional turmoil and increased rebelliousness, as noted by Craig and Kermis (1995), these descriptions are not characteristic of all adolescents. This developmental period can, however, be difficult for some students with problems such as delinquency, pregnancy, substance abuse, eating disorders, and depression being relatively common. Suicide and attempted suicide are particularly important concerns (Dacey and Travers, 1991).

In concluding this section on student development, it is crucial to remember that the above information describes typical or average development. The development of any individual may vary greatly from the above descriptions, and this variation is often not a cause for alarm.

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